<b>Bijsluiter</b>. De hyperlink naar het originele document werkt niet meer. Daarom laat Woogle de tekst zien die in dat document stond. Deze tekst kan vreemde foutieve woorden of zinnen bevatten en de opmaak kan verdwenen of veranderd zijn. Dit komt door het zwartlakken van vertrouwelijke informatie of doordat de tekst niet digitaal beschikbaar was en dus ingescand en vervolgens via OCR weer ingelezen is. Voor het originele document, neem contact op met de Woo-contactpersoon van het bestuursorgaan.<br><br>====================================================================== Pagina 1 ======================================================================

<pre>Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
                                                                                    National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management/RIKZ
                                                         Sequestration of carbon dioxide
                                                         (CO2) in the Dutch part of the
                                                         North Sea
                                                         Authors :      R.W.P.M. Laane & R. Bovelander
                                                                        National Institute for Coastal and Marine
                                                                        Management/RIKZ
                                                                        PO.Box 20907
                                                                        2500 EX The Hague
                                                                        The Netherlands
                                                         Report: RIKZ 2002.058
                                                         November 2002
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<pre>National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management/RIKZ
Preface
                                        This study was commissioned (RIKZ 2002/05639, 17 May 2002) by H.
                                        Kersten and N. Ouibrahim (Directie Noordzee).
                                        Objective:
                                        To write a bilingual (Dutch and English) popular scientific report on the
                                        possible effects (on the seabed and organisms) and consequences of
                                        dumping and sequestering carbon dioxide (CO2) on and in the seabed
                                        of the Dutch Continental Shelf (known in the Netherlands by the
                                        acronym NCP).
                                        To issue advice based on this information to Directie Noordzee about
                                        the scientific, social and political consequences of dumping CO2 in the
                                        Dutch part of the North Sea, so that Directie Noordzee can determine
                                        what stance to adopt for the London Dumping Convention.
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Contents
                                        1   Introduction                                       7
                                            1.1 Greenhouse effect                              7
                                            1.2 Sources                                        7
                                        2   Background                                         9
                                            2.1 Seawater and Carbon Dioxide                    9
                                            2.2 Adding Carbon Dioxide to Seawater              9
                                            2.3 Fertilising                                   10
                                            2.4 Carbon Dioxide in Aquifers                    10
                                            2.5 Carbon Dioxide in Gas and Oil Fields          10
                                        3   Impact on the Marine Ecosystem                    11
                                            3.1 Carbon Dioxide in Seawater                    11
                                            3.2 Carbon Dioxide in the Bottom                  12
                                        4   Feasibility for the Dutch Continental Shelf (NCP) 13
                                        5   Political Considerations                          15
                                        6   Conclusions                                       17
                                        7   Recommendations for Further Research              19
                                        8   Acknowledgements                                  21
                                        9   Bibliography                                      23
                                        10 Risk table                                         25
                                        11 PrelimInary Overview of Fields Experiments         26
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<pre>National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management/RIKZ
1 Introduction
                                        1.1 Greenhouse effect
                                        During the last 420,000 years the average CO2 concentration on earth
                                        has varied between 180 and 280 particles per million per volume
                                        (ppmv). However, since the industrial revolution, more and more CO2
                                        has ended up in the atmosphere as a result of the increasing use of fossil
                                        fuels; the current concentration is 370 ppmv. Furthermore, it is
                                        estimated that if nothing changes, by 2100 this concentration will be
                                        approximately 750 ppmv. It is thus assumed that the CO2 concentration
                                        in the atmosphere will rise to an unacceptable level in the next 500
                                        years, as this rise will lead to a global strengthening of the greenhouse
                                        effect and associated climate change.
                                        One of the results of the 1997 Kyoto Climate Conference was the
                                        commitment by all EU countries to reduce annual emissions of
                                        greenhouse gases (including CO2) in the period 2008-2012 by eight
                                        percent with respect to the 1990 level. In 1998, the Netherlands agreed
                                        to this under certain conditions, and the joint objective was translated
                                        into a national reduction of six percent with respect to the 1990 level, to
                                        be achieved in the period 2008-2012.
                                        1.2 Sources
                                        The average worldwide anthropogenic emission of CO2 is approximately
                                        7.4 gigatons C per year (1997). This will rise to 26 GtC/year by 2100 (1
                                        gigaton is 109 ton). The total emission of CO2 for the Netherlands in
                                        2000 was 50 Mt C (106 ton).
                                        Sources of CO2 include: power stations, industry, homes, traffic and
                                        transport, agriculture and horticulture, gas and oil extraction. The
                                        emissions of v by large point sources, such as heavy industry and power
                                        generation represent about a third of total worldwide anthropogenic
                                        emissions; in the Netherlands this accounts for about 56 percent.
                                        Reducing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere can be achieved
                                        in various ways, for instance by economising on energy use or by
                                        producing more materials in which carbon is sequestered for a long
                                        period of time (e.g. plastic and wood). In the short term, possible
                                        options include sequestering CO2 in seawater and in the ground or the
                                        seabed under conditions that prevent its uncontrolled leakage back into
                                        the atmosphere.
                                        Two important CO2 releasing processes can be distinguished: burning of
                                        organic matter and separation of CO2 from other gasses. By nature,
                                        natural gas contains up to 70% CO2, which must be removed before
                                        the gas can be used by the consumer. Sequestration of CO2 in seawater
                                        or bottom needs pure CO2. From a technical point of view it is possible
                                        to separate CO2 from other gasses. However, this process needs energy
                                        and consequently an additional release of CO2. It is estimated that
                                        about 30% more CO2 is produced in this purifying process. A complete
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                                        Life Cycle Analysis, comparing the efficiency of different matter and
                                        energy fluxes, is net yet performed.
                                        In addition it is remarkable that in the literature studied, only the
                                        sources, path and fate of CO2 as a gas is followed, and little is
                                        mentioned about the fate of other (greenhouse) gasses (e.g. nitrogen
                                        and sulphur oxides).
                                        This memorandum evaluates the pros and cons of sequestering carbon
                                        in the sea and the possible associated risks.
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<pre>National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management/RIKZ
2 Background
                                        2.1 Seawater and carbon dioxide
                                        By nature, CO2 dissolves easily in water and particularly in seawater.
                                        This is because seawater has a higher acidity (pH) than fresh water. In
                                        seawater 1% of the CO2 is present as CO2 gas and more than 90% is
                                        present as bicarbonate. Additionally, warm water is in principle able to
                                        hold less gas than cold water. The solubility of CO2 in deep and cold
                                        ocean water is twice the solubility in warmer surface water. The
                                        relatively warm surface water of the sea is saturated with CO2, but the
                                        cold, deep water contains less CO2 than it could potentially hold. The
                                        accelerated addition of atmospheric carbon dioxide to seawater does
                                        little to change the amount of carbon dioxide in seawater. Most of the
                                        CO2 on earth is already in the oceans (38,000 GtC). If all fossil fuels
                                        were burnt and all the CO2 this produced were taken up by the oceans,
                                        the amount of CO2 would rise to 40,000 GtC.
                                        It is assumed that in a thousand years, 85% of the current
                                        anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere will be taken up by the
                                        oceans by natural processes. There are however, three ways of
                                        accelerating the sequestration of anthropogenic CO2 in the sea.
                                        • Adding CO2 to seawater (for instance by means of direct injection);
                                        • Increasing the production of algae by applying fertiliser;
                                        • Storing CO2 in the seabed in aquifers and gas and oil fields.
                                        2.2 Adding carbon dioxide to seawater
                                        Marchetti (1977) was the first to suggest injecting CO2 into the deep,
                                        cold layers of the ocean. This water is not saturated with CO2 and
                                        retains CO2 for a very long time. CO2 dissolves well in the relatively cold
                                        water of the Atlantic Ocean that sinks in the north and results in the
                                        thermohaline circulation of seawater southwards towards the South
                                        Pole. The water eventually surfaces again in the Indian and Pacific
                                        Oceans to flow back along the surface to the Atlantic Ocean. The time
                                        between sinking and rising to the surface again is estimated to be 1000
                                        years. Studies using models have demonstrated that there are also
                                        locations in the ocean where the deep water surfaces within 100 years.
                                        In order to sequester CO2 in seawater it is necessary to inject it at a
                                        depth of at least 1500 metres. At depths below 3000 metres the CO2 is
                                        denser than the water and it will remain there as a layer of CO2. It is
                                        assumed that this layer is isolated from the water above by carbon
                                        dioxide hydrates (CO2.5,75H2O).
                                        It is technically possible to insert CO2 in seawater at great depths. This
                                        can be done by allowing solid blocks of CO2 to sink from ships or
                                        platforms. The estimated cost of energy (generating electricity) would in
                                        such case become 50-100% higher than is presently the case. The
                                        greatest costs would result from separating and purifying the carbon
                                        dioxide.
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                                        2.3 Fertilising
                                        Algae in seawater naturally sequester CO2 in organic material (50GtC/j),
                                        most of which is mineralised in the water phase (by being converted to
                                        CO2). A small portion of the mass of algae that is produced (a maximum
                                        of one third) sinks to the ocean floor, where it is buried. This process
                                        from production to burial is called the biological pump.
                                        In large parts of the oceans algae are unable to grow optimally; their
                                        production is hampered by a lack of nutrients. Adding macronutrients
                                        such as nitrates and phosphates (i.e. fertilising the oceans) and also
                                        adding essential microelements such as iron, would enable more algae
                                        to grow and more carbon to be sequestered in the deep ocean layers.
                                        2.4 Carbon dioxide in aquifers
                                        CO2 can be sequestered in the porous water-bearing layers or aquifers
                                        that lie more than 800 metres below the earth’s surface. The overlying
                                        layers of clay or salt prevent the CO2 from escaping.
                                        The most suitable aquifers in Western Europe are in central and
                                        southern England and in a ridge that stretches from Belgium and the
                                        Netherlands through Germany to Poland. It is assumed that the layers
                                        below the North Sea are also suitable. There are sufficient layers of this
                                        type in the Netherlands. Calculations show that at least 1500 megatons
                                        of CO2 could be stored in them.
                                        2.5 Carbon dioxide in gas and oil fields
                                        There are no technical restrictions to sequester CO2 in gas and oil fields.
                                        Compared to aquifers, oil and gas fields have the advantage that their
                                        geological proportions are better known. Gas fields at a depth of 2000 -
                                        3000 metres are preferable over oil fields, as these fields have already
                                        proven that they can hold gas for very long periods of time. The gas is
                                        usually located in sandstone that is sealed at the top by salt formations.
                                        An added advantage of injecting CO2 in existing gas fields is that it
                                        enhances the production of methane gas by flushing it out.
                                        Various gas fields naturally contain so much CO2 that the CO2 first
                                        needs to be removed before it is possible to use them. In a large-scale
                                        project at the Norwegian Sleipner gas field, CO2 that has been stripped
                                        of gas is injected in a saltwater layer at a depth of 1000 metres. There
                                        are no technical obstacles to injecting CO2 in gas and oil fields.
                                        Production from the oil fields in the North Sea usually takes place by
                                        injecting water or by loss of pressure. As a result, 40-50% of the oil is
                                        often left behind. It is possible to achieve a greater gas and oil yield and
                                        a higher production capacity by injecting CO2 during the production
                                        process.
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3 Impact op het mariene ecosysteem
                                        Many statements on the long-term behaviour of sequestered CO2 are
                                        based on studies using models that have been tailored to particular
                                        situations and are still insufficiently calibrated and validated. Japan.
                                        Norway and America have agreed in 1997 to collaborate in (field)
                                        research to assess the possible consequences of CO2 sequestration.
                                        Since than, Canada, Australia and Switzerland joint this international
                                        project. It is to be expected that an enormous amount of information
                                        about the possible risks will be released the coming next years from
                                        these projects.
                                        3.1 Carbon dioxide in seawater
                                        Inserting more CO2 into seawater would mean that the acidity would
                                        rise (a lower pH value). It has been calculated that the current pH of
                                        seawater has already fallen by 0.1 unit owing to the absorption of
                                        anthropogenic CO2. The pH in the deep ocean water is fairly constant.
                                        When CO2 is injected the pH falls by about 1 unit in an area of several
                                        kilometres around the point of injection. It is expected that this will
                                        certainly have an influence on the organisms present there: their
                                        reproduction and growth may be slowed down. As a result of the
                                        lowering of the pH, calcite (CaCO3) in the ocean sediments can dissolve.
                                        This may have a considerable impact on the calcium metabolism of
                                        organisms that use calcium to build shells or skeletons. Changes in pH
                                        also affect the bioavailability of metals for organisms, as a result of
                                        which symptoms of toxicity may occur.
                                        If CO2 is inserted into the oceans at great depths, it will remain
                                        suspended as a layer above the bed and will not mix well with water.
                                        Beneath this layer, organisms will die from a lack of oxygen. This will
                                        also certainly change the microbiological processes in the seabed.
                                        Inserting solid carbon dioxide will greatly lower the temperature locally
                                        and this may cause organisms to die. Additionally, the release of CO2
                                        causes bubbles, which may interfere with the sonar communication
                                        between marine organisms. Moreover, insufficient account has been
                                        taken of the fact that after 100 – 1000 years the injected CO2 will rise to
                                        the surface again and some will re-enter the atmosphere.
                                        There are important reservations with regard to fertilising the sea with
                                        the aim of sequestering atmospheric carbon for a longer period of time.
                                        The assumption is that the fertilising substances will be applied in a pure
                                        form. In the first place, very little is known about the short and long
                                        term impact of fertilisation on the structure and dynamics of marine
                                        ecosystems. Fertilisation can lead to eutrophication, with the possible
                                        effect of local oxygen deprivation and uncontrolled (toxic) algal blooms.
                                        It is likely that fertilisation will lead to an unpredictably higher fish
                                        production. Additionally, modelling studies have shown that the amount
                                        of CO2 that can be sequestered in the oceans in this way is likely to be
                                        smaller than expected.
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                                        3.2 Carbon dioxide in the bottom
                                        From an administrative, technical, economical, social and environmental
                                        point of view it is assumed that existing installations will be used to
                                        pump CO2 in the bottom layers. It is technically possible to inject CO2 in
                                        aquifers, and international projects and experiments are being planned
                                        or conducted worldwide (see table 2). However, the ecological risks are
                                        not yet very well known and the isolating capacity of these layers still
                                        needs to be proven by location specific research.
                                        Injection of CO2 in the bottom can cause earthquakes, as shown in
                                        America and France (up to 1.5 on the scale of Richter). In its necessary
                                        here to consider that for instance in the Netherlands 128 earthquakes
                                        were recorded in 1986 caused by the pressure decrease by the mining of
                                        gas in the northern part of the Netherlands.
                                        The ecological consequences of injecting CO2 in exhausted and existing
                                        gas and oil fields are still unknown. A number of trial projects are
                                        already being conducted, but here, however, the main focus lies on
                                        technical feasibility rather than on the ecological consequences. It is
                                        assumed that when CO2 is injected in deeper layers it will remain
                                        underground for a very long time. In the Netherlands it is assumed that
                                        it must always be possible to re-access the CO2 in the deep layers in a
                                        controlled way. Using models it has been calculated that after 8000
                                        years, 90-98% of the injected CO2 will still be in the reservoir. Leakage
                                        of injected CO2 through cracks caused by the contraction of the
                                        depleted gas and oil fields is assumed to be minimal. Any subsidence can
                                        be partially balanced or countered by injecting CO2 into exhausted or
                                        existing gas and oil fields.
                                        In general it can be concluded that the impact of the long-term effects
                                        of storing CO2 in seawater or in the seabed on the structure and
                                        function of marine ecosystems and on biogeochemical cycles is
                                        insufficiently known. It is expected that the impact will be largest in the
                                        case of direct injection in the water and also in the case of increasing the
                                        uptake of CO2 (by fertilising, for example ).
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<pre>National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management/RIKZ
4 Feasibility for the Dutch continental shelf (NCP)
                                        Direct injection of CO2 in seawater is not an option for the Dutch
                                        Continental Shelf (NCP) in the North Sea, as the sea is too shallow.
                                        It is technically feasible to store large amounts of CO2 for long periods in
                                        aquifers and in old and existing gas and oil fields on the NCP. Existing oil
                                        and gas fields are to be preferred, as CO2 injection increases the yield of
                                        gas.
                                        It has been calculated that at least 10,000 megatons of CO2 can be
                                        sequestered in gas and oil fields in the Netherlands. Groningen alone has
                                        a sequestration capacity of 6,500 megatons of CO2, but this will only
                                        become available around 2040. A feasibility study has shown that
                                        annually 30% of the CO2 emission from point sources in the Rijnmond
                                        (industry and a power station), at IJmuiden (industry) and in the Eems
                                        estuary (a power station) can be combined and sequestered in nearby
                                        fields and aquifers. Though the fields in the Netherlands and the North
                                        Sea are capable of sequestering the CO2 production from power stations
                                        for 30 years, it must be taken into account that the current policy in the
                                        Netherlands is aimed at storing gas in old gas fields.
                                        At the same time it looks like there is a preference to sequester CO2 in
                                        the Netherlands in the sea bottom, because it is to be expected that
                                        more protests will appear by sequestration on land.
                                        The present calculations fro the feasibility of the Dutch continental Shelf
                                        are based on generic (model) calculations. Further studies must take in
                                        to account location specific characteristics of the aquifers and gas fields.
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5 Political considerations
                                        There are legal and political obstacles that obstruct the injection of CO2
                                        in the oceans.
                                        - The principle of caution dictates that no change may be made to the
                                          environment without all the consequences being known.
                                        - According to the Protocol of the 1996 London Convention, with the
                                          exception of a few substances it is not permitted to dump substances
                                          from ships and platforms.
                                        - The UN Convention of the Law of the Sea compels coastal states to
                                          regulate and control the discharge through pipes within their exclusive
                                          economic zone.
                                        Against these legal and political obstacles it can be argued that the
                                        principle of caution equally applies to the rising CO2 concentration in
                                        the atmosphere. It must also be taken into consideration that CO2 is a
                                        natural product and that injecting CO2 accelerates the natural process of
                                        CO2 uptake by the oceans, thus reducing the possible risks of climate
                                        change.
                                        It is necessary to take account of the current zoning plans in the
                                        Netherlands, and of Dutch legislation: the Land Protection Act, the
                                        building and mooring permits in the Environmental Management Act,
                                        and the Surface Water Pollution Act. Last but not least, there must be
                                        support from the Dutch public.
                                        Recently a small scale field experiment to inject CO2 in sea water was
                                        cancelled in Norway under pressure of Greenpeace and WWF.
                                        The solutions for the problem that this memorandum has discussed are
                                        end-of-pipe; in other words, they aim to treat the symptoms. The
                                        preference in Dutch policy is for long-term solutions that deal with the
                                        causes of CO2 emissions; examples are economising on energy use,
                                        using sustainable energy and climate-neutral energy carriers, and
                                        chemical sequestering.
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6 Conclusions
                                        • Sequestration of CO2 is an end of pipe solution with hardly any
                                          change at the emission side.
                                        • Long-term solutions that deal with the causes of CO2 emission are
                                          preferred.
                                        • Present assessments are based on studies using models that have been
                                          tailored to particular situations and are still insufficiently calibrated and
                                          validated.
                                        • Assessment and field studies are up to now mainly focussed on the
                                          technical feasibility and not yet on the ecological consequences.
                                        • Some large scale field experiments reveal that, from a technical point
                                          of view, large amounts of CO2 can be sequestered in seawater and in
                                          the sea bottom (aquifers, oil and gas fields).
                                        • Relatively minor attention is paid to the possible effects of the release
                                          of a CO2 cloud by accidents during transport and storage.
                                        • The North Sea is too shallow to store for a long time CO2 in seawater
                                        • Storage of large amounts of CO2 by fertilising the (North)sea is
                                          technical difficult and the ecological consequences can not be
                                          estimated.
                                        • It is possible to store 30% of the released CO2 for the coming 30 years
                                          in the Netherlands in aquifers and gas fields under the land and sea
                                          bottom.
                                        • In the Netherlands there is a prevalence to store CO2 in the sea
                                          bottom.
                                        • Little is known about the ecological consequences of sequestration of
                                          CO2 in aquifers, oil and gas fields. The risks, when existing installations
                                          are used, are estimated to be small.
                                        • A life cycle analysis is necessary to map the energy and mass fluxes
                                          during the whole process of purification, transport and storage.
                                        • The ministry of Economical Affairs in the Netherlands has started a
                                          project office to study the feasibility of sequestration of CO2. It is
                                          recommended that Directie Noordzee, as administrator of the North
                                          Sea, will be involved in this organisation.
                                        • The support from the Dutch public for the sequestration of CO2 in sea
                                          water/bottom must be enlarged.
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7 Recommendations for further research
                                        Following an extensive feasibility study a project office for sequestration
                                        research is founded by the ministry of Economical Affairs in the
                                        Netherlands. This office will coordinate field experiments and will
                                        stimulate international collaboration.
                                        In the literature many recommendations for further research are
                                        mentioned: there are still many technical and ecological questions open.
                                        A few are already addressed in running projects. If these answers are
                                        know in a few years it will be much easier to select research questions
                                        for the Dutch risk assessment.
                                        In general, it is necessary to collect more knowledge of the
                                        biogeochemical processes in the oceans, as it is not known how much
                                        CO2 can be sequestered in the oceans before the structure and function
                                        of the marine ecosystem is disturbed.
                                        Additionally, it is worth looking to other options for durably storing CO2
                                        besides sequestering. Examples include the production of methanol from
                                        CO2. A number of basic chemicals for the chemical industry, such as
                                        ethylene, are already being made from CO2.
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8 Acknowledgements
                                        We owe a special word of thanks to P. Stollwerk (NOVEM), W. van
                                        Grootheest (projectbureau CO2 reductieplan), Dr. T. Wildenborg (NITG-
                                        TNO), Dr. M. Rutgers van der Loeff (RIKZ) and Dr. C. Hendriks (Ecofys)
                                        for contributing their expertise, providing grey literature and for
                                        commenting on the text. Dr. J. Burrough improved the English version
                                        considerably. Drs. J. Pijnenburg and Peter van Elk for the finishing of this
                                        report.
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9 Bibliography
                                        Adams, E. M. Akai, G. Alendal, L. Golmen, P. Haugen, H. Herzog, S.
                                        Masutani, S. Marai, G. Nihous, T. Oshumi, Y. Shirayama, C. Smith, E.
                                        Vetter and C. Wong (2002). International Field Experiment on Ocean
                                        Carbon Sequestration. Environmental Science and Technology, 399a.
                                        Anonymus (1995). Derde Energienota. Ministerie Economische Zaken,
                                        Den Haag.
                                        Anonymus (2001). Nationaal Milieuplan 4, Ministerie VROM, Den
                                        Haag.
                                        Anonymus (2002). Ocean sequestration. In: A Third Approach to
                                        Carbon Management and Carbon Sequestration Research and
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10 Risk table
                                         Summary of the pros and cons and the possible risk, split up to
                                         technical, geochemical and ecological effects, for different options to
                                         sequester CO2 in sea water/bottom. Indicated are also the storage
                                         capacity in the Netherlands. XXXXX indicated strength of the risk. Text
                                         in the risk boxes describe the preconditions of effects.
Options             Capacity       Pros and Cons                                           risk
                    (Mton)
                                                                        Large                                 small
Injection in sea                   Energy price up by       Technical                                         XXXXX
water                              100-150%                 Geochemical <1500m                      >3000m
                                                            Ecological  pH, <O2
Fertilising                        Pollution by metals,     Technical                               XXXXX
                                   hormones and             Geochemical           XXXXX
                                   organic matter.          Ecological  XXXXX
                                   Changes in
                                   biogeochemical cycles
Aquifers            4700 (land)    Earthquakes              Technical                                         >800m
                    1100 (sea)                              Geochemical                             XXXXX
                                                            Ecological                              XXXXX
Oil and gas fields 10000 (land)    Greater yields -         Technical                                         XXXXX
gas fields          975 (sea)      of oil and gas           Geochemical                    X olie X X gas X
                                   Less subsidence          Ecological                              XXXXX
                                   and earthquakes                                                  XXXXX
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                                                     Naam                  country                                  year   area                  remarks
                                                     Sleipner West         Norway                 aquifer           1996   North Sea             First field experiment carbon dioxide from gas filed in aquifer
                                                     Natuna                Indonesia              aquifer                  sea, west of Borneo
part of the North Sea
                                                     Kona coast            Hawaii                 Sea water         2001   ocean
                                                     Pennzoail's SACRO     America, west Texas    Oil field         1972   land                  First field experiment carbon dioxide in oil field
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management/RIKZ
                                                                           Japan                  Sea water         1997   sea                   Running for 5 years
27                                                   Alberta Basin         Cananda                                                               Feasibility study
                                                     IRONEX                                       Iron fertilizer   1993   Pacific
                                                     San Juan Basin                               carbon layers                                  Demonstration project
                                                     Black Warrior Basin   America, Alabama       carbon layers                                  Demonstration project
                                                     Monterer Bay          America                Sea water         1998   ocean
                                                     Sharon Ridge          America, Texas         Oil field                land                  Enhanced oil production
                                                     Rangely               America, Colorado      Oil field                land                  Enhanced oil production
                                                     Enid                  America, Oklahoma      Oil field                land                  Enhanced oil production
                                                     Weyburn               Canada, Saskatchewan   Oil field                land                  Enhanced oil production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                   11 Overview of fields experiments (not exhaustive)
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